NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS. Jewish newspapers and periodicals have

been published in the main three Jewish languages (Hebrew, Yiddish, and Ladino) and have also appeared in the primary languages of countries in which Jews have lived. The first Jewish newspaper, Gazeta de Amsterdam, was published in Ladino in Amsterdam (1674–1699). A short-lived Yiddish newspaper, Kurant, soon followed (1686–1687); however, other early efforts at news reporting in Yiddish did not succeed. In 1784, German supporters of the Haskalah movement created the Hebrew-language, largely literary Me’asef (Ingatherer). The spread of Haskalah journals throughout the Austro-Hungarian empire in the early nineteenth century marked the beginning of the age of Jewish periodical literature in Eastern Europe. These publications were devoted to literature, criticism, and scholarship. Among the earliest were Bikure ha-‘itim (First Fruits of the Times; 1820–1831) and its successor, Kerem hemed (The Lovely Vineyard; 1833–1856). Although Bikure ha-‘itim was printed in Vienna, many maskilim contributed to it from Galicia and Bohemia. The editor of Kere