MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION Early Education for Spatial Intelligence:Why,What,

ABSTRACT—Spatial representation and thinking have evolutionary importance for anymobile organism. In addition, they help reasoning in domains that are not obviously spatial, for example, through the use of graphs and diagrams. This article reviews the literature suggesting that mental spatial transformation abilities, while present in some precursory form in infants, toddlers, and preschool children, also undergo considerable development and show important individual differences, which are malleable. These findings provide the basis for thinking about how to promote spatial thinking in preschools, at home, and in children’s play. Integrating spatial content into formal and informal instruction could not only improve spatial functioning in general but also reduce differences related to gender and socioeconomic status that may impede full participation in a technological society. Spatial thinking is often difficult. People frequently get lost or give directions that are difficult to follow or that contain mistakes. They get frustratedwhen attempting to put together ‘‘easy to assemble’ ’ furniture, and they yell at each other when trying to pack a small car for a long trip. However, such problems may seem like minor hassles when viewed against really important issues, such as illiteracy or failures to graduate high school. The attention of psychologists, educational researchers, and teachers is frequently focused on the basic skills of reading andwriting,mathematics, and science. Should some of this energy also be devoted to improving spatial thinking? There are several crucial reasons why. First, remember that spatial intelligence has evolutionary and adaptive importance. Any mobile organism must be abl