Riparian forest restoration: why each site needs an ecological prescription

Although restoration of riparian forests improves water and habitat quality of streams, it can be a slow and difficult process, particularly in landscapes where competition from non-native invasive plants and mammalian herbivores produces high seedling mortality. We experimentally evaluated the short-term (1 year) and long-term (5 years) effects on seedling survival and growth of measures to reduce both herbivory (tree shelters) and plant competition (herbicides, tree mats, and mowing) for five species of deciduous trees in two riparian sites in the coastal plain of eastern Maryland, USA. Study species included: Quercus palustri