2002: Policy Learning in Embedding Negotiations: Explaining EU Electricity Liberalization

In 1996, after eight years of controversial negotiations, the European Union (EU) agreed to liberalize EU electricity markets. This reform was a watershed in the evolution of a sector that until then had been exempted from competition. The outcome is puzzling, because it differs markedly from the member states ’ initial positions on this issue. As many member states initially defended their sectoral structures, several commentators doubted they could ever agree on a directive.1 After the EU reform was enacted, it was viewed as the least common denominato