Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America (12/28/05)

In this brief conclusion we make two arguments. First, broad general explanations of anti-Americanism offer inadequate accounts for the variety of anti-Americanisms that this book has uncovered. In particular, we discuss three popular explanations, focusing on power imbalances, globalization backlash and conflicting identities. All of these arguments seem to resonate with expressions of anti-Americanism in some parts of the world at some times, but are insufficient for understanding anti-Americanism in other places and at other times. This book amply documents that anti-American views are simply too heterogeneous to be explained by one or a few broad factors. Our second general argument begins with reframing the problem of anti-Americanism in world politics in light of the various analyses this book offers. When we think about the varieties of anti-American views that we have uncovered and the changes in them experienced over time, two puzzles are readily apparent. First, why does such a rich variety of anti-American views persist? And why do persistent and adaptable anti-American views have so little direct impact on policy and political practice? Anti-Americanism reflects opinion and distrust. Often it generates expressive activity