Effects of father participation in child-rearing: twenty-year follow-up

Follow-up data were obtained on the young adult children of fathers of intact, white, middle-class families who had been closely involved in early child rearing. The extent to which their locus of control, expectations about gender roles in career and family contexts, and academic competence differed from those of peers reared in more traditional families was examined. Greater paternal in-volvement was found to contribute to a more internal locus of control, particu-larly in sons. During the past two decades, researchon many aspects of involved father-hood has flourished (Blanchard & Biller