Mangrove Physiology: the Challenge of Salt, Heat, and Light Stress Under Recurrent Flooding

Mangroves have developed a wide array of morphological and physiological traits that deal successfully with salt stress and oxygen demands for root function. Water uptake from an environment enriched in highly permeable ions, mainly chloride and sodium, require the capability of excluding ions at the root level, get rid of the excess of salts taken up, or develop compartments where large amounts of salt can be accumulated without the risk of damaging the photosynthetic apparatus. These alternatives have significant physiological costs associated. Energy demands are particularly strong for maintaining ion selectivity (high K+/Na+ ratios relative to soil water) and membrane stability. Thes