Journal

Spatial perspective can be understood through a variety of reference frames, such as intrinsic, relative, and abso-lute relations (Levinson, 1996). In an intrinsic reference frame, the inherent spatial properties of an object deter-mine spatial perspective. In a relative reference frame, an object is judged as above/below or front/behind on the basis of the viewer’s perspective, regardless of its inher-ent spatial properties. An absolute reference frame is one that refers to an object’s location with respect to external surroundings, such as those provided by gravity or cardi-nal directions. These different ways of understanding spa-tial perspective are evident across languages (Couclelis, Golledge, Gale, & Tobler, 1987). The use of spatial terms when a person is described is directed primarily by an intrinsic reference scheme. Fo