2002 ). The motivating function of thinking about the future: Expectations versus fantasies

Two forms of thinking about the future are distinguished: expectations versus fantasies. Positive expectations (judging a desired future as likely) predicted high effort and successful performance, but the reverse was true for positive fantasies (experiencing one’s thoughts and mental images about a desired future positively). Participants were graduates looking for a job (Study 1), students with a crush on a peer of the opposite sex (Study 2), undergraduates anticipating an exam (Study 3), and patients undergoing hip-replacement surgery (Study 4). Effort and performance were measured weeks or months (up to 2 years) after expectations and fantasies had been assessed. Implications for the self-regulation of effort and performance are discussed. Research consistently finds that optimistic thinking about the future fosters motivation and successful performance, whereas pessimistic thinking dampens motivation and successful perfor-mance (Bandura, 1997; Heckhausen, 1991; Seligman, 1991; Tay-lor & Brown, 1988). Optimistic thinking is associated with suc-cessful cognitive and self-regulatory problem solving, with prosocial and helping behavior, with setting high standards and aspirations, and with indicators of mental health—all of these factors are essential for well-being and personality development. Optimistic thinking even hinders the emergence of acute and chronic disease and slows its progress (C. Peterson & Bossio