Varieties of sameness: the impact of relational complexity on perceptual comparisons

The fundamental relations that underlie cognitive comparisons—“same ” and “different”—can be de-fined at multiple levels of abstraction, which vary in relational complexity. We compared response times to decide whether or not two sequentially-presented patterns, each composed of two pairs of colored squares, were the same at three levels of abstraction: perceptual, relational, and system (higher order relations). For both 150 ms and 5 s inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs), both with and without a masking stim-ulus, decision time increased with level of abstraction. Sameness at lower complexity levels contributed to decisions based on the higher levels. The pattern of comparison times across levels was not predictable solely from encoding times. The results indicated that relations at multiple levels of complexity can be abstracted and compared in working memory, with higher complexity levels requiring more processing time. We simulated the impact of relational complexity on response time using Learning and Infer-ence with Schemas and Analogies (LISA), a computational model of relational comparisons based on dynamic binding of elements into roles in a relational working memory