Cultivating problem-solving skills through problembased approaches to professional development. Human Resource Development Quarterly

An extensive literature review was conducted of four problem-based approaches to professional development: (1) case study, (2) goal-based scenario, (3) problem-based learning, and (4) action learning. The review comparatively analyzed the training designs of these four approaches and found key differences in the nature of their case problems and training strategies. Specifically, the analysis found that case problems are ill struc-tured in action learning and problem-based learning, are moderately structured in a goal-based scenario, and are fairly well structured in the case study approach. In addition, it was found that prototypical problems are used to a much greater extent in the problem-based learning and goal-based scenario approaches than they are in the other two approaches. Furthermore, the analysis found that the case study approach uses the most expert-oriented training strategy, the goal-based scenario approach uses a more learner-oriented strategy than the case study approach, and the problem-based learning and action learning approaches use strongly learner-oriented strategies. These design differences suggest that the case study and goal-based scenario approaches are more likely to result in single-loop learning and to foster the ability to solve well-structured problems, whereas the problem-based learning and action learning approaches are more likely to lead to double-loop learning and to promote the ability to solve ill-structured problems. Implications of these findings for the design and research of problem-based approaches to professional development are discussed. Problem solving is an important aspect of professional practice (Bereiter and Scardamalia, 1993). Professionals rely on their problem-solving skills to handle the increasingly ill-structured nature of their work (Schön, 1987)