Invited Review Cell mechanics and mechanotransduction: pathways, probes, and physiology

287: C1–C11, 2004; 10.1152/ajpcell.00559.2003.—Cells face not only a complex biochemical environment but also a diverse biomechanical environment. How cells respond to variations in mechanical forces is critical in homeostasis and many diseases. The mechanisms by which mechanical forces lead to eventual biochem-ical and molecular responses remain undefined, and unraveling this mystery will undoubtedly provide new insight into strengthening bone, growing cartilage, improving cardiac contractility, and constructing tissues for artificial organs. In this article we review the physical bases underlying the mechanotransduction process, techniques used to apply controlled mechanical stresses on living cells and tissues to probe mechanotransduction, and some of the important lessons that we are learning from mechanical stimulation of cells with precisely controlled forces. cytoskeleton; micromanipulation; cell signaling ALL LIVING ORGANISMS face mechanical forces, from the fluid forces around a bacterium to the high forces in a human knee during stair climbing. The process of converting physica