and Maillard

management Abstract: 1. High-density populations of large herbivores are now widespread. Wildlife managers commonly attempt to control large herbivores through hunting to meet specific management objectives, considering population density as the minimal key source of information. Here, we review the problems of censusing populations of large herbivores and describe an alternative approach, employing indicators of ecological change. 2. Estimating density of large herbivores with high precision and accuracy is difficult, especially over large areas, and requires considerable investment of time, people and money. Management decisions are often made on an annual basis, informed by population changes over the previous year. However, estimating year-to-year changes in density is not a realistic goal for most large herbivores. Furthermore, population density per se provides no information on the relationship between the population and its habitat. 3. For successful management of large herbivores, we need to consider not only the fate of the population, but rather changes in both population and habitat features, as well as their interaction. Managers require information on trends in both the animal population and habitat quality in order to interpret changes in the interaction between these two compartments. 4. W