REVIEW

Abstract Hamilton’s (1964a, 1964b) landmark papers are rightly recognized as the formal basis for our understanding of the evolution of altruistic traits. However, Hamilton’s equation as he originally ex-pressed it is simplistic. A genetically oriented approach to studying multilevel selection can provide insights into how the terminology and assumptions used by Hamilton can be generalized. Using contextual analysis I demon-strated that Hamilton’s rule actually embodies three distinct processes, group selection, individual selection, and transmission genetics or heritability. Whether an altruistic trait will evolve depends the balance of all of these factors. The genetical approach, and particularly, contextual analysis provides a means of separating these factors and examining them one at a time. Perhaps the greatest issue with Hamilton’s equation is the interpre-tation of r. Hamilton (1964a) interpreted this as relat-edness. In this paper I show that what Hamilton called relatedness is more generally interpreted as the propor-tion for variance among groups, and that many pro-cesses in addition to relatedness can increase the variance among groups. I also show that the evolution of an altruistic trait is driven by the ratio of the herita-bility at the group level to the heritability at the indi-vidual level. Under some circumstances this ratio can be greater than 1. In this situation altruism can evolve even if selection favoring selfish behavior is stronger than selection favoring altruism