Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism–collectivism research

Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others. The current literature proposes that people construe the self in two divergent ways. One type of construal is described by such concepts as individualist, independent, autonomous, agen-tic, and separate, and the other by their antonyms such as col-lectivist, interdependent, ensembled, communal, and relationa