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To everyone who reads this thesis. iii Acknowledgements I could not have finished my graduate work without the help and support of many people. I have learned a great deal about science and writing from my adviser Arjun Yodh. I am always amazed by the breadth of his scientific knowledge and the variety of projects he supervises which span both applied biomedical optics and fundamental physics. Despite his extremely busy schedule, he keeps his door open and almost always makes time for us when we drop by to discuss something. Perhaps the best part of working in Arjun’s lab is the friendly and supportive atmosphere he fosters among the students, post-docs, and staff. During my first years in the group, Kijoon Lee