Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control

There is extensive evidence that people strongly value and are reluctant to re-linquish the perception of control. Yet, both helplessness and locus of control theorists interpret various "inward " behaviors (passivity, withdrawal, and sub-missiveness) as signs of relinquished perceived control. As evidence, they note that inward behavior frequently is accompanied by causal attributions to limited ability, chance, and powerful others—all attributions that suggest uncontrolla-bility. In contrast, we claim,that these attributions and the behaviors to which they relate may often reflect a type of perceived control that is generally over-looked. People attempt to gain control not only by bringing the environment into line with their wishes (primary control) but also by bringing themselves into line with environmental forces (secondary control). Four manifestations of secondary control are considered: (a) Attributions to severely, limited ability can serve to enhance predictive control and to protect against disappointment. Passive and withdrawn behaviors reflect the attempt to inhibit unfulfillable expectations, (b) Attributions to chance can reflect illusory control, since people often constru